needed by the body. As we alluded in Chapter 2, variations on this storage and retrieval facility are likely the subjects of an ongoing appraisal through multi-level natural selection.

In the physical environment, a significant premium is due to individuals of the primate species that can react well to real and perceived threats. For the hominids, which do not have a lot of inherent passive defensive or offensive mechanisms at their disposal, the ability to respond quickly and decisively to stressful situations is quite beneficial. Consequently, a foundational characteristic of the species was recognized by Hans Selye as the fight or flight response to stress. He published a 1946 paper describing the general adaptation syndrome, of which the fight or flight response is essentially the first stage, in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology. When presented with what may become a life or death situation, the human body undergoes an almost instantaneous set of physiological changes that prepare it either for battle or for a mad dash away from danger. In parallel with these physiological responses, the mind forms an emotion modulated cognitive response based on a contextual appraisal of the specific sensory stimuli, which answers the rather profound question, “Do I run or do I fight?” The answer can well determine the continuation of the person. Winston Churchill’s famous remark comes to mind, “There’s nothing quite so exhilarating as to be shot at without effect!” To engage the fight or flight response is to place a number of exclamation points after the need to determine an action stimulus based on sensory input.

In response, many of the body’s physiological changes are internal. Blood vessels constrict in certain areas in order to essentially shut down non-essential organs such as the kidneys and the digestive tract. Sensory awareness is heightened, the heart and lungs kick into high gear, ready to support extremely increased physical activity. Glucose stored in the liver is released into the blood stream to provide an intermediate term energy boost, while epinephrine and endorphins are released to first stimulate immediate physical capability and second to diminish the body’s reaction to pain that may result from ongoing combat.

These latter two materials are actually neurotransmitters. They function at the synaptic chemistry level of the body’s nervous system. In essence, they change the impedance and amplification characteristics of the many different neuron circuits through which sensory stimuli are received, the cognitive facilities through which they are analyzed and the motor system through which the body’s response is channeled. In situations of severe stress, we see and hear better, we think faster and we become stronger and faster. We also tend to wet our pants, a reaction that lightens us up a bit and might also, in our native condition, surprise a predator that attacks us. In more modern combat, it’s a small price to pay if bullets are evaded.

In order to acquire the necessary sustenance, evolution has molded the body to enhance the process based on the environment. Within the animalia kingdom, only two phyla possess articulated skeletons that provide shape and structural support for the individual members of their various species: arthropoda, including insects and lobsters, and chordata, which includes all the vertebrate species. Articulation of the skeleton indicates that the various structural components of the individual skeleton meet at various points called joints. Joints allow different parts of the skeleton to move relative to other points. This structure establishes a common form for all the members of a specific species and it also provides for mobility of the entities.

Arthropods possess an exoskeleton. That is, the skeleton is comprised of a strong shell that forms the outer boundary of the individual. Muscles, or other mechanisms that induce movement, are present within this skeletal boundary. Typically, an exoskeleton provides protection along with the other characteristics provided by skeletons. From an evolutionary standpoint, exoskeletons tend to

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